Statistical Analysis Results of Crime: ANOVA Test

Statistical Analysis Results of Crime: ANOVA Test THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA), STUDENTS ‘T’ TESTS AND MATRIX ALGEBRA ATUBI, A. 0. Ph.D. Introduction The ANOVA sometimes referred to as the F test (named after the statistician Sir Roland Fisher, the author of this test) is a set of procedures for testing the significance of differences among more than two independent means. This procedure determines the extent to which there are significant differences between the means of three or more samples with a single level of significance. Because this procedure and others like it focus on variances, they are referred to as the analysis of variance or ANOVA One Way Analysis of Variance The step in ANOVA can be illustrated by an example Example 5.1.1 The number of crimes committed in 4 months in various parts of a town are list below: Month Artisan quarters Slums CDB GRA January February March April 20 16 32 16 52 44 56 36 36 40 36 40 16 20 32 20 At 0.05 level of confidence, are crime frequencies related to urban morphology or month of the year? First set up a null hypothesis of equality of the means Let Ho be: â€Å"There is no significant difference between the crimes frequencies and urban morphology or month of the year. Next, find the total of the four areas as listed below then their means Total =Artesan SlumsCBDGRA 8418815288 Mean Next, calculate the Grand mean Next, calculate the sum of squares for each population. Note that in ANOVA the number of samples do not have to be same Table 4.1.1: Means and sums of squares of crimes committed In ANOVA, we determine differences between means by calculating their variability. Three types of variability are estimated: The variation within each sample result The variation between the sample results The total variation of the samples, regardless of the sample grouping to which they belong (Anyadike, 2009) Next, calculate the sums of the sum of squares for each column (i.e Variable): SSW = ∑∑(Xij X)2 = 172+236+16+144 =568 Calculate sum of square between = ? N (X —X)2 =4(21-3 2)2+4(473 2)2+4 (3832)2 + 4(2232)2 = 484 +900+144+400 =1928 Calculate the within group sum of square. MSW = SSW n-rn Where n=no of observations M=no of groups Similarly, the mean s square between will be MSb =SSb M-l Therefore MSW =SSb=568=568 n-m 16-4 12 = 47.33 The ratio between the variance estimate is known as the Snedecor’s variance ratio test or Snedecor’s F Now set up an ANOVA table: Finally, test for significance: The degrees of freedom, V are: V- numerator = M-1=4-1=3 V- denominator = n-m= 16—4=12 From the Table of the F-Distribution, critical value of F at 0.05 3 and 12 =3.49 Calculated value is 13.18 Since the calculated F of 13.58 is greater (>) 3.49, Ho is rejected. Therefore, â€Å"There is a significant difference between crime frequencies with regards to urban morphology or month of the year. THE STUDENT ‘T TEST The most powerful test for the comparison of sample means is the student ‘t’ test. It is a parametric test and is used to determine whether or not the differences between two sample means are sufficiently great as to justify a conclusion that the means of their populations also differ significantly. It is also used for small samples The student ‘t’ is expressed as: T = x1-x ­1 vS12/N1 + S22/N2 Where X1 and X2 are the means of the two sets of data; S1 and S2 their standard deviations; and N1 and N2 the number of observations. The degree of freedom, V is expressed as follows: V = N+N,-2 Degree of Freedom There is often confusion among students about the concept of â€Å"degree of freedom†. Basically, if the sum of a set of elements and the sum of all but one is of its elements are both known, then the value of the last element must also be known, i.e. it is not, unlike the others, free to vary (Ayandike, 2009). For example, if the sum of 8 elements is 30 and the values of 7 of the elements variously add up to 28, then the value ofthe final (i.e. the 8†) element must be (30-28) = 2, i.e. if is not free to adopt any other value. The degree of freedom in this case is thus (8-1) = 7, i.e. in the set of 8 element, 7 of them are free to take on any values to sum up to 28, leaving value inviolate ELEMENTS OF MATRIX ALGEBRA Introduction The matrix is a rectangular array of number arranged in rows n and columns, m i.e Each of the numbers is called an elements. The position of each element is determined by its position in the row as well as in the The size of the matrix is given by the number of rows (n) and number of column (m) for example. A matrix which has the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix. In the example above, a and c are square matrices. A matrix with a single row is called a row vector, while a matrix of a single column is called a column vector. Example of a row vector is {3 5 7 8} example of column vector is Matrix can be added, subtracted, multiplied and inverted but cannot be divided. However, they can only be divided by a scalar (i.e an ordinary number). Addition of Matrix Matrices to be added must be of the same size as one another. That is they must have the same number of columns and row s. This is because each element of one matrix must be added to the same element of the other matrix e.g. supposing we are adding two matrix [A]  ± [B] [A] + [BI =[C] i.e you add element by element N.B:The number of columns and rows must be the same before it can be added Matrix Subtraction The same rule as addition is applied e.g to subtract [BI from [A] [A] [B] Matrix Multiplication There are two aspect of matrix multiplication namely: a.Multiplication of matrix by a scaler b.Multiplication of matrix by two matrices By Scaler Supposing we are multiplying the matrix below by 4 Multiplication by Two Matrices When two matrices are to be multiplied, the number of columns in the first matrix must be equal the number of rows in the second matrix e.g. 23 matrix can be multiplied by 32 matrix. But a 23 matrix cannot be multiplied by another 23 matrix because the number of rows there is not equal to the number of columns in the second e.g. The result will have as many rows as the first and as may columns as the second. Multiplication of a matrix by vector, example An identity or unity matrix 1, is a matrix where the diagonal consist of l’s and the rest of the elements are zero e.g.: Matrix Inversion In matrix, algebra function of division is changed to that of inversion. The inverse of the matrix is it’s reciprocal i.e. Only square matrices have inverses. A matrix that cannot be inverted is called a singular matrix. Several methods exists for finding the inverse of a matrix. They includes 1.  The classical method This is to set the matrix beside an identity matrix, and to perform all operations simultaneously in both matrices, for example, if you are to invert this matrix [A], you first place it beside an identity matrix You have Step 1 Subtract row 2 from 3, multiply row 1 Row 2(3xrow 1) Step 3 2.  By Determinants This is the more modern one. A determinant is a single number extracted from a square matrix by series of operations. It is represented by either det A or /A/ The process of obtaining a determinant from a matrix is called evaluating the determinant. Using determinant, the inverse of matrix [A] becomes /A/ = ad—bc The adjoint of a matrix is the transposed matrix of co -factors with the signs taken into consideration. The signs are alternating +, -, across and down the element of the matrix e.g. in a 22 matrix So far a 22 matrix, the inverse is the adjoint of that matrix over the determinant of the matrix. The determinant of a 33 matrix The minus for each leading element becomes Uptill i. The Solution of Simultaneous Equation The major interest in matrices (and its greatest strength) is their use in the resolution of the unknowns in simultaneous equations (Anya dike, 2009) SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWNS 3x+4y 10 2x +‘7y = 11 Set in matrix form 1.Using the classical method, our equation in matrix form is [A] [x] [B] The matrix of the unknown [x]=[A]=[B] For a 2 x 2 matrix the adjoint of it is Since our matrix of unknown is Check with original equation 3x+4y =10 2x +7y1l Check 3(2)+4(1)= 10 =6+4+10 2(2) +7 (1) =1 4+7=11 1. By determinant method The matrix in our example is [A] [x] [B] This 13 is called the common denominator. Then we find the numerator of x, which is the determinant of the main matrix. :. X2/A1.B/-à ·/A!13113 =1 =y Therefore,Y = 1 X=2 REFERENCES Anyadike, R.N.C (2009) Statistical methods for social and Environmental Sciences. Spectrum Books Limited Ibadan. Anyadike, R.N.C (2009): Statistical methods for social and Environmental sciences. Spectrum Books limited Ibadan. Atubi, A.O. (2010d) Road Traffic Accident variations in Lagos State, Nigeria: A Synopsis of variance Spectra. African research Review, Vol 4(2) pp. 197-218. Ethiopia. Ewhmdjakpor C, Atubi, A.O. and Odemerho F. (2006): Statistics for social investigations. Delsu Investment Nigeria, Limited, Delta State University, Abraka. Ewhrudjakpor. C, Atubi, A.O, and Odermerho F (2006). Statistics for social Investigations. Delsu Investment Nigeria, Limited. Delta State University, Abraka. Spiegel, M.R (1972): Theory and problems of statistics. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Aristotle introduced the three classical modes

This paper focuses on several key concepts presented in Aristotle’s works. The rationale behind such a choice is associated with the fact that Aristotle’s works are widely believed to be among the most important texts from the history of rhetoric (Herrick, 2004).Another reason for an in-depth focus on Aristotelian rhetoric is that many theories he developed are still widely used for effectively advancing arguments in the public discourse.Aristotle introduced the three classical modes of persuasion — Ethos (appeal to authority), Pathos (appeal to emotion), and Logos (appeal to logic). As concerns Ethos, audience tends to believe speakers that elicit respect and demonstrate their credibility. Personal qualities that render speakers such credibility encompass a sense of wisdom (phronesis), goodwill (eunoia), and strong moral character (arete).Pathos, for its part, implies that a speaker possesses the ability to arouse strong feeling and emotional reactions in his or her listeners. While Aristotle acknowledges the importance of the aforementioned modes of persuasion, he strongly deems that Logos is the most important and effective.Logical reasoning is occurring in two main forms: induction and deduction. Inductive reasoning entails arriving at a certain conclusion on the basis of specific examples. Deduction implies ascribing certain qualities to objects or phenomena on the basis of a general rule.Aristotle also investigates the concepts of syllogism and enthymeme. A syllogism, which is essentially a form of deductive reasoning, is defines as ‘a discourse in which, certain things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so’ (Aristotle, 1989, p.2).A syllogism consists of three elements, namely the major premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion. Each premise has to have one term that conclusion also contains; it is referred to as the middle term.The major t erm (a part of the major premise) is referred to as the predicate of the conclusion, and the minor term (a part of the minor premise) is referred to as the subject of the conclusion. An example of a syllogism presented by Aristotle is as follows: since all humans are mortal (major premise), and Socrates is human (minor premise), it is possible to infer that Socrates is mortal (conclusion).

Women in the Handmaids Tale Objectification and Value in...

Margaret Atwoods novel The Handmaids Tale is a work of speculative fiction. The Republic of Gilead is a dystopic society, especially for the women. Women in the novel are stripped of their freedom, while men are entitled to a portion of their freedom. This novel is one that illustrates inequality towards women. A focus for the Republic of Gilead is to increase the declining birth rate. Within the phallocentric society of the Republic of Gilead, re-population results in women being objectified and valued for their reproductive qualities. The division of women in the Republic of Gilead is based on their reproductive qualities and status. Anatomy is destiny in the society of the Republic of Gilead. Wives are classified as elite†¦show more content†¦Womens uniforms in the Republic of Gilead represent their functions within society. The varying colors of uniforms denote the status of the women wearing them. Uniforms can not ultimately be changed: some people call them habits, a good word for them. Habits are hard to break (p. 31). Uniforms consist of a dress and a veil. The function of the veil is to conceal and hide women as well as to prevent women from seeing. Wives wear powder blue uniforms, which are representative of the Virgin Mary and melancholy. Daughters of Wives wear white, which is symbolic of virginit y. Aunts wear an army khaki color, which is representative of their partial military role. Marthas wear dull green, which is representative of the service industry: dull green, like a surgeons gown of the time before (p. 30). Widows are typically seen in black, the color of mourning. Handmaids wear red which is representative of blood, menses, and birth: red: the color of blood, which defines us (p. 9). Unwomen wear gray, which is the color of ashes. Women that work at Jezebels as prostitutes are not restricted to uniforms like the rest of the women in the Republic of Gilead. They wear outdated costumes from the time before that are highly eroticized. For women in the Republic of Gilead, there is no freedom of choice in attire. Women in the Republic of Gilead are objectified, viewed as property, controlled and lack freedom. The mobility of womenShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Margaret Atwood s The Handmaid s Tale1825 Words   |  8 PagesIn Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale, we meet Offred, or so they call her, a Handmaid in the Republic of Gilead, a futuristic dystopian society. Gilead tarnished traditional values and replaced them with shear corruption after the rebels killed the President as well as most of Congress, took over the government, and decided to throw out the constitution. Instead the society relies on the bible to justify its barbaric rules, limitations and practices. In a totalitarian society of decreasing birth

The Analysis of the Colonels Lady - 740 Words

The Analysis of the Colonel’s Lady Summary: The passage represents us Colonel’s feelings and thoughts about his wife, Evie. She was a good wife and a good hostess. Colonel thought that he was in love when he married her, but then he realized that they had different interests . They had no quarrels, but Evie wasn’t able to give the birth to a child, that’s why Colonel thought their marriage failed. Colonel was a healthy man and it was normal for him to have another woman, as he had to have such fun in his life. Compositional design: Exposition: â€Å" from â€Å"Of course, she was a lady,†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Narrative hook: â€Å"from He couldn’t understand why she’d had no children†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Rising action: from â€Å"He supposed he’d been in love with her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Climax: from†¦show more content†¦The character is one-sided and static. He doesn’t change his mind about his relations with his wife and at the same time he does nothing Conflict: 1. General characteristic of the conflicts: The plot of the passage from †The Colonel’s Lady† is based on the conflict between Colonel, the protagonist of the story and his own nature which may be regarded as the antagonist. The conflict is mental (Colonel misunderstands Evie) . The central conflict of this passage may be looked upon in terms of moral values and defined as one between man’s view on the life and a woman’s one. 2. A deep look into the conflict: Colonel realized that he and his wife Evie have different interests and nothing at common. He wanted a heir, but Evie couldn’t have children and took it for granted, that her husband lived his own way. As Colonel considered himself to be a healthy man, he thought it natural to have some fun The conflict seems to reach its climax when Colonel found a lover in London where he has come alone, since his wife refused to go with him. The text provides us testifying Colonel’s struggle with himself. On the syntactical level in Colonel’s thoughts about Evie, we find the use of such devise as paradox: she was always neat and suitably dressed, but you couldn’t tell she was quite attractive. The conflict is developing by Colonel’s wife attitude towards him. â€Å"She